Which Concept Refers To Change In Social Position During A Person's Lifetime?

Social Mobility

Social mobility is the move of an individual or group from one social position to another over time.

Learning Objectives

Assess how different factors facilitate social mobility

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• A person's ability to move betwixt social positions depends upon their economic, cultural, human, and social majuscule.
• The attributes needed to move up or down the social hierarchy are item to each society; some countries value economic gain, for case, while others prioritize religious status.
• Social mobility typically refers to vertical mobility, move of individuals or groups up or down from one socio-economical level to some other, often by changing jobs or marriage.

Fundamental Terms

• Relative Social Mobility: A measure of a person's up or downward move in the social hierarchy compared to the movement of other members of their inherited social class.
• meritocratic: Used to describe a type of club where wealth, income, and social status are assigned through contest.
• social mobility: the degree to which, in a given society, an individual's, family'southward, or group'due south social condition can change throughout the class of their life through a arrangement of social hierarchy or stratification
• Intergenerational Mobility: Refers to the miracle whereby a kid attains higher or lower condition than their parents.

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups in social positions over time. Most unremarkably, social mobility refers to the change in wealth and social condition of individuals or families. However, it may also refer to changes in wellness status, literacy rate, education, or other variables among groups, such as classes, indigenous groups, or countries.

Social mobility typically refers to vertical mobility, movement of individuals or groups up or down from one socio-economical level to some other, often past irresolute jobs or matrimony. All the same, social mobility can also refer to horizontal mobility, movement from i position to some other within the same social level, as when someone changes between ii equally prestigious occupations.

In some cases, social mobility is intergenerational, as when children attain a higher or lower condition than their parents held. Other times, social mobility is intra-generational, pregnant that a person changes status within their lifetime. A high level of intergenerational mobility is often considered praiseworthy and can exist seen as a sign of equality of opportunity in a society.

A distinction tin also be drawn between absolute social mobility, which refers to the total observed movement of people between classes, and relative social mobility, which is an judge of the chance of upward or downward movement of a member of one social grade in comparing with a member from some other form. An instance of accented social motility is when a region'southward economic development provides quality education to a social grouping that previously did non take admission to instruction, thus raising the group's literacy level and socioeconomic status. Relative social mobility might refer to the opportunities presented to a middle class child born in a item expanse of the United States, who might be predicted to achieve a higher level education and a maximum income of $80,000, for example.

Social mobility can be enabled to varying extents by economic capital, cultural capital, human uppercase, and social capital. Economic uppercase includes a person'due south financial and material resources, such as income and accumulated wealth. Cultural capital includes resource ranging from belongings a graduate degree to having a grasp of a group'southward customs and rituals, both of which may confer an advantage in job markets and social exchanges. Human capital refers to such individual traits equally competence and work ethic, which may enable increased educational or professional person attainment. Social capital includes the advantages conferred by one's social network, such as access to professional person opportunities and insider knowledge. These types of capital facilitate mobility by providing access to opportunities and the tools to acquire wealth and status.

Societies present dissimilar opportunities for mobility depending on their systems of value. For example, Western capitalist countries are more often than not meritocratic. In such countries, social standing is based on such personal attributes as educational attainment, income, and occupational prestige. Thus, the degree of mobility in Western capitalist states depends on the extent to which individuals have access to educational and economical opportunity. By contrast, in countries where religious devotion is valued over economic continuing, mobility may depend upon individuals' access to religious rituals and shows of piety. In different countries or regions, the extent to which individuals have social mobility depends upon different factors.

Intergenerational Mobility in a Sample of Developed Countries: This graph shows the results of a report on how much intergenerational social mobility there is in a sample of developed countries. Countries with higher intergenerational income elasticity take lower social mobility — in countries on the left of the graph, children are likely to attain the same social status as their parents.

Growing Gap Betwixt Rich and Poor

Economic inequality (also known as the gap between rich and poor) consists of disparities in the distribution of wealth and income.

Learning Objectives

Hash out the causes of economic inequality

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• Economic inequality refers to inequality amongst individuals and groups inside a society, but tin as well refer to inequality amid countries.
• Inequality is almost often measured using the Gini coefficient, a statistic used to demonstrate the dispersion of wealth in a group.
• Both the backer marketplace and authorities interventions can increase or decrease the level of inequality in a society.

Key Terms

• supply and demand: An economic model of toll determination in a market based on the relative scarcity or abundance of goods and services.
• gini coefficient: A measure of the inequality of a statistical distribution, ranging from zero (total equality) to one (maximal inequality), used in various disciplines but particularly in economic science to compare incomes or wealth.
• Capitalist Marketplace: Refers to an economic system in which supply and need determines the cost of goods and wages for services.

Economic inequality (also known as the gap betwixt rich and poor, income inequality, wealth disparity, or wealth and income differences) consists of disparities in the distribution of wealth (accumulated avails) and income. The term typically refers to inequality among individuals and groups within a club, merely tin can too refer to inequality amongst countries. The issue of economic inequality is related to the ideas of equity: equality of outcome and equality of opportunity. There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, but the nearly commonly used mensurate for the purposes of comparison is the Gini coefficient (besides known every bit the Gini index or Gini ratio for Italian statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini). The Gini coefficient is a statistical measure out of the dispersal of wealth or income. A Gini coefficient of zero indicates that in that location is perfect equality—assets are equally divided between all people in the group. A Gini coefficient of one indicates that all of a grouping's wealth is held by one individual. Nigh countries autumn toward the middle of this range.

Map of Global Gini Coefficients: Using Gini coefficients, this map illustrates the extent to which each country in the world has internal inequality, or a gap between its richest and poorest citizens.

In that location are many reasons for economic inequality within societies, and they are ofttimes interrelated. Best-selling factors that touch on economic inequality include, but are not express to:

• Inequality in wages and salaries;
• The income gap betwixt highly skilled workers and low-skilled or no-skills workers;
• Wealth concentration in the hands of a few individuals or institutions;
• Labor markets;
• Globalization;
• Technological changes;
• Policy reforms;
• Taxes;
• Teaching;
• Computerization and growing applied science;
• Racism;
• Gender;
• Culture;
• Innate power

A major cause of economical inequality within modern economies is the conclusion of wages by the backer marketplace. In the capitalist market place, the wages for jobs are set by supply and need. If there are many workers willing to practice a job for a great amount of time, there is a high supply of labor for that job. If few people need that job done, in that location is low demand for that type of labor. When in that location is high supply and depression demand for a job, it results in a low wage. Conversely, if there is depression supply and loftier demand (as with particular highly skilled jobs), it will outcome in a high wage. The gap in wages produces inequality between unlike types of workers.

Apart from market-driven factors that affect wage inequality, government sponsored initiatives can also increase or decrease inequality. Social scientists and policy makers contend the relative merits and effectiveness of each approach to regulating inequality. Typical government initiatives to reduce economic inequality include:

• Public education: Increasing the supply of skilled labor and reducing income inequality due to teaching differentials.
• Progressive taxation: The rich are taxed proportionally more than the poor, reducing the amount of income inequality in social club.
• Minimum wage legislation: Raising the income of the poorest workers
• Nationalization or subsidization of products: Providing goods and services that everyone needs cheaply or freely (such every bit food, healthcare, and housing), governments can effectively heighten the purchasing power of the poorer members of society.

Open up vs. Closed Stratification Systems

In an open grade arrangement, people are ranked by achieved status, whereas in a closed form arrangement, people are ranked by ascribed status.

Learning Objectives

Differentiate between open up and closed stratification systems

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• Social stratification describes the socioeconomic levels of a club as "layers," with the wealthiest and most powerful citizens being at the tiptop.
• An accomplishment-based economical system with social mobility and relations between classes is known as an open grade system.
• By dissimilarity, people in a closed class organisation have been confined to their bequeathed occupations, and their social condition has mostly been prescribed by nascence. Most closed class systems are establish in less industrialized countries.
• Ascribed status is the social position one is born into and personal characteristics beyond ane'southward control, such as race and gender. Achieved status is one's social continuing that depends on personal accomplishments.

Primal Terms

• achieved condition: A social condition of a person that is acquired, such as being an Olympic athlete, beingness a criminal, or being a college professor.
• structural mobility: Opportunity for motion in social course that is attributable to changes in the social construction of a society, rather than to changes in an private.
• ascribed status: The social status of a person that is given from nativity or assumed involuntarily later in life.

Social stratification describes the socioeconomic levels of a social club as "layers," with the wealthiest and most powerful citizens being at the top. Typically, the top layer of gild tends to accept lots of property, as well as prestige and social influence.

Sociologists who written report stratification accept identified open form systems and compared them to closed class systems. The difference between these types of form systems are their structural mobility. In a class organization that has loftier structural mobility, it's like shooting fish in a barrel to move effectually between social classes based on the way the lodge is structured, regardless of your individual achievements.

In an open grade organization, the hierarchical social status of a person is accomplished through their endeavor. These types of class systems are accomplishment-based economic system with social mobility and relations between classes. Condition based on family background, ethnicity, gender, and religion, which is also known equally "ascribed status," is less important. In an open class organization, at that place is no distinct line between the classes, and there is a wide range of positions within each condition level. Core industrial nations seem to have more than of an ideal open grade system than less industrialized countries, in which there are fewer opportunities for economic advancement.

Steve Jobs' Childhood Domicile: The U.s. exhibits an open up stratification system, where individuals can move betwixt social statuses based on accomplishment. Pictured is the heart class habitation of Steve Jobs' parents, where he founded the engineering science company that somewhen made him one of the world's wealthiest people.

Compared with industrialized open systems, pre-industrial societies have mostly been plant to be closed class systems where in that location is low social mobility. People in such societies may be bars to their ancestral occupations, and their social status is largely prescribed by condition at birth. A guild in which traditional or religious degree systems dominate, opportunity for social mobility is unlikely.

Accomplished status is a position gained based on merit or achievement (used in an open organization). An open up system describes a society with mobility betwixt different social classes. Individuals can movement upwardly or downwards in the social rankings; this is unlike closed systems, where individuals are gear up in one social position for life despite their achievements. Ascribed status is based on who a person is, non what they can do. In closed form systems, people tend to be ranked past ascribed status. When ascribed status is used to determine social position, fixed roles develop, such as those of lord and serf in feudal Europe. Roles are assigned at birth, and there is niggling change over ane's lifetime. Social mobility is much more frequent in countries that utilise achievement equally the basis for status.

The French Estates: This fifteenth-century woodcutting illustrates the closed stratification system of the three estates of the French Ancien Régime. People were divided into clergy, nobility, and commoners. These categories were discrete, and there was little interaction or mobility between them.

Types of Social Mobility

Social mobility can exist vertical and horizontal, absolute and relative, and betwixt generations.

Learning Objectives

Describe several types of social mobility

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Social mobility refers to the move of individuals or groups in social position over time.
• Social mobility may refer to classes, ethnic groups, or entire nations, and may mensurate health condition, literacy, or pedagogy; even so, more unremarkably information technology refers to individuals or families, and to their change in income.
• Movement up or down the social hierarchy is called vertical social mobility.
• Motility betwixt two equally ranked social positions is called horizontal mobility.
• Intra-generational mobility ("within" a generation) is divers as change in social status over a unmarried lifetime.
• Absolute mobility measures whether (and past how much) living standards in a society accept increased; this is often measured by what percentage of people accept higher incomes than their parents.
• Relative mobility refers to how likely children are to move from their parents' place in the social hierarchy.

Cardinal Terms

• meritocratic: Used to describe a type of society where wealth, income, and social condition are assigned through contest.
• vertical mobility: Movement of individuals or groups up or down from one socioeconomic level to another, ofttimes by irresolute jobs or through marriage.
• intra-generational mobility: Modify in social status over a single lifetime.

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups in social position over fourth dimension. Almost usually, social mobility refers to the change in wealth and social condition of individuals or families. All the same, it may also refer to changes in wellness status, literacy rate, education, or other variables among groups such every bit classes, ethnic groups, or countries.

Social mobility typically refers to vertical mobility, which is the movement of individuals or groups upward or downwards from i socioeconomic level to another, oft past changing jobs or through wedlock. In some instances though, social mobility is used to refer to horizontal mobility, which is the movement from one position to another within the same social level, as when someone changes betwixt two every bit prestigious occupations.

Social mobility can be intergenerational, such equally when children reach a college or lower status than their parents held. Other times, social mobility is intra-generational, pregnant that a person changes status inside their lifetime. A high level of intergenerational mobility is ofttimes considered praiseworthy, and can be seen as a sign of equality of opportunity in a society.

A distinction can be drawn betwixt accented social mobility, which refers to the full observed move of people betwixt classes, and relative social mobility, which is an guess of the chance of upward or downwards movement of a member of i social course in comparison with a member from some other class. An case of accented social mobility is when a region's economic evolution provides educational activity to a social grouping that previously did not have admission to education, thus raising the group'southward literacy level and socioeconomic condition. Relative social mobility might refer to the opportunities presented to a eye class child born in a detail expanse of the U.s.a., who might exist predicted to attain a college level education and a maximum income of $fourscore,000, for instance.

Social mobility tin can exist enabled to varying extents by economical upper-case letter, cultural capital, human capital, and social capital. Economic capital includes a person's financial and material resource, such as income and accumulated wealth. Cultural capital letter includes resource ranging from property a graduate caste to having a grasp of a grouping's customs and rituals, both of which may confer an advantage in job markets and social exchanges. Human capital refers to such individual traits as competence and work ethic, which may enable increased educational or professional attainment. Social capital letter includes the advantages conferred by 1's social network, such as access to professional opportunities and insider knowledge. These types of capital facilitate mobility by providing access to opportunities and the tools to larn wealth and status.

Each club presents unlike opportunities for mobility depending on its organization of values. For instance, Western capitalist countries are by and large meritocratic. In these countries, social continuing is based on such personal attributes as educational attainment, income, and occupational prestige. Thus, the caste of mobility in Western capitalist states depends on the extent to which individuals have admission to educational and economic opportunity. By dissimilarity, in countries where religious devotion is valued over economic standing, mobility may depend upon individuals' access to religious rituals and shows of piety. In dissimilar countries or regions, the extent to which individuals are socially mobile depends upon unlike factors.

Social Mobility in the U.Southward.

Strong social and economic mobility is considered part of American Dream, though there is relatively depression social mobility in the U.S.

Learning Objectives

Explain how the "glass ceiling" and other factors lower social mobility in the U.s.a.

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Socioeconomic mobility in the United States refers to the movement of Americans from one social class or economic level to another, often by irresolute jobs or marrying.
• The " drinking glass ceiling " effect is the upper limit on the mobility of minorities, such equally African-Americans and women, that prevents them from occupying more than than a very small percentage of high condition positions.
• For women, another explanation for the glass ceiling effect in the American work force is the job- family merchandise off.

Key Terms

• The American Dream: The belief that with hard work, backbone, and determination, anyone tin prosper and achieve success.
• Socioeconomic Mobility: The movement of Americans from one social course or economic level to some other, often by changing jobs or marrying.
• glass ceiling: An unwritten, uncodified barrier to further promotion or progression for a member of a specific demographic grouping.

Socioeconomic mobility in the United states of america refers to the move of Americans from i social course or economical level to another, often by irresolute jobs or marrying. This "vertical" mobility can be the change in socioeconomic status betwixt parents and children ("inter-generational"), or over the course of a lifetime ("intra-generational"). It typically refers to "relative mobility"—the take chances that an American'southward income or status will ascension or autumn compared to others in another income or status grouping; however, mobility tin also be "accented"— whether (and by how much) living standards in America have increased. The belief that in that location is significant social mobility in America, or in other words, that Americans can and do rise from humble origins to riches, is called the American Dream.

Researchers have institute that in fact, there is relatively low social mobility in the U.s.. Explanations for this phenomenon include the following:

• The fact that affluent children have amend access to superior schools in an economy where pay is higher for educated workers
• The low rate of unionization, which leads to lower wages among the least skilled workers
• Public health problems, similar obesity and diabetes, which tin can limit teaching and employment
• The sheer size of the income gap between the rich and poor, which makes it harder to climb the proverbial income ladder because the rungs are far apart
• Poverty, since those with depression income have significantly lower rates of mobility than centre and higher income individuals

Despite the increased presence of African Americans and women in the work force over the years, women and non-whites hold jobs with less rank, authority, opportunity for advancement, and pay than men and whites. The limit to women's and minorities' upward mobility is called the glass ceiling. The drinking glass ceiling is thought to prevent women and minorities from occupying more a very small percentage of acme managerial positions. One reason for the persistence of the glass ceiling, even equally explicitly discriminatory policies are eliminated, is the small proportion of high status individuals in the social networks of women and ethnic minorities. The more than managers in that location are in an employee'south immediate work environment, the higher the employee's chances of interacting and spending fourth dimension with high condition and high income employees. Consequently, the more probable these employees are to be drawn on for promotion.

For women, some other explanation for the glass ceiling effect in the American work force is the job-family trade off. While both men and women feel that a disharmonize exists between work life and family life, women with children, particularly married women, are more probable to either temporarily exit the labor force or cut dorsum on employment past using flex time, working part-time, or working only part of the year. Statistically, men have been willing to have job conditions that women exercise not, such as working outside in extreme weather, working where you tin can go physically dirty on a regular basis, working extra hours, and other such undesirable conditions.

Usa Gender Pay Gap, by Race/Ethnicity: In the United States, white males have greater social mobility than women and racial/ethnic minorities, whose mobility is express by the glass ceiling.

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/social-mobility/

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